Downloads
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47982/jfde.2026.351Published
Issue
Section
License
Authors or their institutions retain copyright to their publications without restrictions.
How to Cite
Keywords:
On-substrate Additive Manufacturing, Varying Property Additive Manufacturing, Robotic 3D Printing, Thermoset Reactive Polymers, Design-to-Fabrication, Window-Frame, Building FaçadeAbstract
Additive Manufacturing offers significant potential in construction by directly converting digital designs into physical objects. However, this potential is constrained by the separated fabrication approach–components are printed away from their final location and later installed. Inherent to most AM processes, it disrupts automation and adds complexity to the construction process. This study demonstrates a laboratory on-substrate workflow that prints directly onto the receiving substructure. A comprehensive workflow was developed, integrating digital design, slicing, and robotic on-substrate Additive Manufacturing to address challenges such as printing directly onto pre-existing structures, handling multiple orientations, and managing complex geometries. Experimental validation was conducted using a robotic Additive Manufacturing setup, demonstrating the fabrication of a fixed glass window frame prototype with varied material properties during printing. The window frame was 3D-printed in 4 hours, 10 minutes, and 34 seconds. Findings suggest that on-substrate Additive Manufacturing with thermoset polymers is a viable approach, offering potential for streamlined construction and enhanced customisation, laying the groundwork for scalable, automated façade construction.
References
Bhooshan, S., Ladinig, J., Van Mele, T., & Block, P. (2018). Function representation for robotic 3D printed concrete. In Springer eBooks (pp. 98–109). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92294-2_8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92294-2_8
British Plastics Federation. (n.d.). How PVC-U windows and doorsets are made. British Plastics Federation. https://www.bpf.co.uk/windows/how_pvcu_windows__are_made.aspx
Burger, J., Lloret-Fritschi, E., Scotto, F., Demoulin, T., Gebhard, L., Mata-Falcón, J., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., & Flatt, R. J. (2020). Eggshell: Ultra-Thin Three-Dimensional printed formwork for concrete structures. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing, 7(2), 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1089/3dp.2019.0197 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/3dp.2019.0197
Calignano, F., & Mercurio, V. (2023). An overview of the impact of additive manufacturing on supply chain, reshoring, and sustainability. Cleaner Logistics and Supply Chain, 7, 100103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clscn.2023.100103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clscn.2023.100103
Cheibas, I., Gamote, R. P., Önalan, B., Lloret-Fritschi, E., Gramazio, F., & Kohler, M. (2022). Additive manufactured (3D-Printed) connections for thermoplastic façades. In Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering (pp. 145–166). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20241-4_11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20241-4_11
CyBe Construction B.V. (2024, June 20). We redefine construction | CyBe Construction. CyBe Construction. https://cybe.eu/
Defonseka, C. (2019). Two-Component polyurethane systems. In De Gruyter eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110643169 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110643169
Dielemans, G., Lachmayer, L., Khader, N., Hack, N., Raatz, A., & Dörfler, K. (2024). Robotic repair: In-Place 3D printing for repair of building components using a mobile robot. In Springer Tracts in Additive Manufacturing (pp. 156–164). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64269-2_20 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64269-2_20
Digital Building Technologies, ETHZ. (2020, March 2). Concrete Choreography - dbt. Dbt. https://dbt.arch.ethz.ch/project/concrete-choreography/
Dörfler, K., Dielemans, G., Lachmayer, L., Recker, T., Raatz, A., Lowke, D., & Gerke, M. (2022). Additive Manufacturing using mobile robots: Opportunities and challenges for building construction. Cement and Concrete Research, 158, 106772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2022.106772 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2022.106772
Dörfler, K., Dielemans, G., Leutenegger, S., Jenny, S. E., Pankert, J., Sustarevas, J., Lachmayer, L., Raatz, A., & Lowke, D. (2024). Advancing construction in existing contexts: Prospects and barriers of 3d printing with mobile robots for building maintenance and repair. Cement and Concrete Research, 186, 107656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2024.107656 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2024.107656
Feucht, T., Waldschmitt, B., Lange, J., & Erven, M. (2022). Additive manufacturing of a bridge in situ. Steel Construction, 15(2), 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1002/stco.202100045 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/stco.202100045
Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., Willmann, J., & Jaeger, R. (2014). The robotic touch: How robots change architecture: Gramazio & Kohler, research ETH Zurich 2005–2013. Park Books. https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB15951754
Grigoriadis, K. (2015). Material Fusion: A Research into the Simulated Blending of Materials Using Particle Systems. International Journal of Architectural Computing, 13(3–4), 335–352. https://doi.org/10.1260/1478-0771.13.3-4.335 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1260/1478-0771.13.3-4.335
Hack, N., Dörfler, K., Walzer, A. N., Wangler, T., Mata-Falcón, J., Kumar, N., Buchli, J., Kaufmann, W., Flatt, R. J., Gramazio, F., & Kohler, M. (2020). Structural stay-in-place formwork for robotic in situ fabrication of non-standard concrete structures: A real scale architectural demonstrator. Automation in Construction, 115, 103197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2020.103197 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2020.103197
Hasani, A., & Dorafshan, S. (2024). Transforming construction? Evaluation of the state of structural 3D concrete printing in research and practice. Construction & Building Materials, 438, 137027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.137027 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.137027
Hassan, H., Rodriguez-Ubinas, E., Tamimi, A. A., Trepci, E., Mansouri, A., & Almehairbi, K. (2024). Towards innovative and sustainable buildings: A comprehensive review of 3D printing in construction. Automation in Construction, 163, 105417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105417 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105417
Herzog, T., Krippner, R., & Lang, W. (2017). Façade Construction Manual. DETAIL. https://doi.org/10.11129/9783955533700 DOI: https://doi.org/10.11129/9783955533700
Hilti Jaibot. (n.d.). BIM & Robotik: Das kann der Hilti Bohrroboter. https://www.hilti.de/content/hilti/E3/DE/de/business/business/productivity/semi-autonomer-baustellenroboter-jaibot.html
Jenny, S. E., Pietrasik, L. L., Sounigo, E., Tsai, P., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., Lloret-Fritschi, E., & Hutter, M. (2023). Continuous Mobile Thin-Layer On-Site printing. Automation in Construction, 146, 104634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104634 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104634
Juricic, B. B., Galic, M., & Marenjak, S. (2021). Review of the construction labour demand and shortages in the EU. Buildings, 11(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11010017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11010017
Kim, H., Hong, J., Song, E., Hong, T., & Choi, J. (2025). A multi-dimensional failure factor affecting the on-site adoption of construction robots. Developments in the Built Environment, 25, 100841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2025.100841 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2025.100841
Knaack, U., Klein, T., Bilow, M., & Auer, T. (2007). Façades. Birkhäuser. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8281-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8281-0
Kolarevic, B. (2004). Architecture in the digital age. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203634561 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203634561
Leschok, M., Cheibas, I., Piccioni, V., Seshadri, B., Schlüter, A., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., & Dillenburger, B. (2023). 3D printing façades: Design, fabrication, and assessment methods. Automation in Construction, 152, 104918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2023.104918 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2023.104918
McKinsey Global Institute. (2017). Reinventing construction: A route to higher productivity.
Meijs, M., & Knaack, U. (2009). Components and connections: Principles of Construction. Birkhäuser. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783034610636
Melenbrink, N., Werfel, J., & Menges, A. (2020). On-site autonomous construction robots: Towards unsupervised building. Automation in Construction, 119, 103312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2020.103312 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2020.103312
Minibuilders. (n.d.). https://robots.iaac.net/
Mitropoulou, I., Vaxman, A., Diamanti, O., & Dillenburger, B. (2024). Fabrication-aware strip-decomposable quadrilateral meshes. Computer-Aided Design, 168, 103666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cad.2023.103666 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cad.2023.103666
Mohsen, A. (2020). Li3-Method. In Mechanik, Werkstoffe und Konstruktion im Bauwesen (pp. 191–199). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-30204-7_6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-30204-7_6
MX3D. (2024, June 18). 3D printed smart Bridge in Amsterdam | MX3D. https://mx3d.com/industries/design/smart-bridge/
Nazir, A., Gokcekaya, O., Billah, K. M. M., Ertugrul, O., Jiang, J., Sun, J., & Hussain, S. (2023). Multi-material additive manufacturing: A systematic review of design, properties, applications, challenges, and 3D printing of materials and cellular metamaterials. Materials & Design, 226, 111661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.111661 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.111661
Pajonk, A., Luna-Navarro, A., Knaack, U., & Blum, U. (2024). Additive manufacturing with varying material properties of thermosetting reactive polymers: A framework and comparison of different modes for implementing material transitions. Architectural Science Review, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2024.2348141 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2024.2348141
Pajonk, A., Prieto, A., Blum, U., & Knaack, U. (2022). Multi-material additive manufacturing in architecture and construction: A review. Journal of Building Engineering, 45, 103603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103603 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103603
RAL-Gütegemeinschaft Fenster und Haustüren e.V. (2014). Leitfaden zur Planung und Ausführung der Montage von Fenstern und Haustüren für Neubau und Renovierung.
Rios, O., Carter, W., Post, B., Lloyd, P., Fenn, D., Kutchko, C., Rock, R., Olson, K., & Compton, B. (2018). 3D printing via ambient reactive extrusion. Materials Today Communications, 15, 333–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2018.02.031 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2018.02.031
Robayo-Salazar, R., De Gutiérrez, R. M., Villaquirán-Caicedo, M. A., & Arjona, S. D. (2023). 3D printing with cementitious materials: Challenges and opportunities for the construction sector. Automation in Construction, 146, 104693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104693 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104693
Robert McNeel & Associates. (n.d.). Rhinoceros 3D. https://www.rhino3d.com/
Romberg, S. K., Hershey, C. J., Lindahl, J. M., Carter, W. G., Condon, J., Kunc, V., & Compton, B. G. (2022). Large-scale reactive thermoset printing: Complex interactions between temperature evolution, viscosity, and cure shrinkage. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 123(9–10), 3079–3094. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10380-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10380-3
Saidi, K. S., Bock, T., & Georgoulas, C. (2016). Robotics in construction. In Springer Handbook of Robotics (2nd ed., pp. 1493–1520). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32552-1_57 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32552-1_57
Sarakinioti, M. V., Turrin, M., Konstantinou, T., Tenpierik, M., & Knaack, U. (2018). Developing an integrated 3D-printed façade with complex geometries for active temperature control. Materials Today Communications, 15, 275–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2018.02.027 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2018.02.027
Scorpion. (2024, June 26). Food4Rhino. https://www.food4rhino.com/en/app/scorpion
Stark, T., Binder, M., Bonfig, P., Hartwig, J., Jehl, W., Klos, H., Leuschner, I., Sieberath, U., & Sohn, E. (2016). Building Openings Construction Manual: Windows, Vents and Exterior Doors. Detail.
Strauss, H. (2012). AM Envelope. The potential of Additive Manufacturing for façade constructions. A+BE. https://doi.org/10.59490/abe.2013.1.477 DOI: https://doi.org/10.59490/ABE.2013.1.386
Taseva, Y., Eftekhar, N., Kwon, H., Leschok, M., & Dillenburger, B. (2020). Large-Scale 3D printing for Functionally-Graded façade. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia. https://doi.org/10.52842/conf.caadria.2020.1.183 DOI: https://doi.org/10.52842/conf.caadria.2020.1.183
Tenpierik, M., Turrin, M., Wattez, Y., Cosmatu, T., & Tsafou, S. (2018). Double Face 2.0: A lightweight translucent adaptable Trombe wall. SPOOL, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.7480/spool.2018.2.2090
Uitz, O., Koirala, P., Tehrani, M., & Seepersad, C. C. (2021). Fast, low-energy additive manufacturing of isotropic parts via reactive extrusion. Additive Manufacturing, 41, 101919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.101919 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.101919
Uitz, O., Leng, R., Pan, T., Zhao, X., Oridate, A., Seepersad, C., Ounaies, Z., & Frecker, M. (2023). Reactive extrusion additive manufacturing (REAM) of functionally graded, magneto-active thermoset composites. Additive Manufacturing, 67, 103486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103486 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103486
Universal Robots A/S. (2016). UR5 Technical specifications. https://www.universal-robots.com/media/50588/ur5_en.pdf
ViscoTec Pumpen- u. Dosiertechnik GmbH. (2024, June 21). 3D Print Heads. https://www.viscotec.de/en/products/3d-print-heads/
Visose. (n.d.). GitHub - visose/Robots: Create and simulate ABB, KUKA, UR, and Staubli robot programs. GitHub. https://github.com/visose/Robots
VHV-Bauschadenbericht. (2022). Hochbau 2021/22. Fraunhofer, Stuttgart.
Wang, T., Mao, C., Sun, B., & Li, Z. (2024). Genealogy of construction robotics. Automation in Construction, 166, 105607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105607 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105607
Wiscombe, T. (2012). Beyond assemblies: System convergence and multi-materiality. Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 7(1), 015001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-3182/7/1/015001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-3182/7/1/015001
Wolf, A., Rosendahl, P. L., & Knaack, U. (2022). Additive manufacturing of clay and ceramic building components. Automation in Construction, 133, 103956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2021.103956 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2021.103956
Wynne, Z., Buchanan, C., Kyvelou, P., Gardner, L., Kromanis, R., Stratford, T., & Reynolds, T. P. S. (2022). Dynamic testing and analysis of the world’s first metal 3D printed bridge. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 17, e01541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01541 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01541
XtreeE. (n.d.). XtreeE | The large-scale 3D. https://xtreee.com/en/
Zuo, Z., De Corte, W., Huang, Y., Chen, X., Zhang, Y., Li, J., Zhang, L., Xiao, J., Yuan, Y., Zhang, K., Zhang, L., & Mechtcherine, V. (2023). Propelling the widespread adoption of large-scale 3D printing. Nature Reviews Materials. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-023-00626-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-023-00626-1
